FREE ESSAY ON PERSONNEL SELECTION IN ATHLETIC PROGRAMS

PERSONNEL SELECTION IN ATHLETIC PROGRAMS

Personnel Selection in Athletic Programs
ABSTRACT
Whether it be at a collegiate or professional level, organizations have been faced with
public pressure to be successful. The
selection of appropriate personnel is one means for doing this. Although coaches are
experts in identifying the physical
characteristics needed for success in their field; they lack the skills necessary to
asses the psychological factors that have been
proven to have a significant impact on athletic performance. The identification,
quantification and implementation of these
psychological attributes in selection decisions can therefore have a significant impact
on a program's success. This paper reviews
the factors that have been associated with athletic success, measures of these factors,
and use of these factors in making
selection decisions. 
Introduction
Over the course of the past twenty years an increasing amount of attention has been
devoted to the field of athletics.
Whether it be at a collegiate or professional level, organizations have been faced with
public pressure to be successful. As a
result, athletic directors and general managers have been faced with the question of how
to improve their teams' success. One
obvious way of doing this is to select qualified personnel for the tasks at hand. The
method by which athletes are selected for a
team can have a significant impact on that team's success. In the past, decisions have
been made based largely on judgments of
an individual's physical characteristics with little attention given to the psychological
factors that contribute to athletic success.
Coaches are experts in identifying the physical characteristics needed for success in
their field; however, they lack the skills
necessary to asses the psychological factors that have been proven to have a significant
impact on athletic performance.
Coaches have relied on informal judgments of constructs such as an athlete's motivation
and level of aggression to determine
their potential to succeed. Everyone has heard stories of athletes that were told they
lacked the physical skill to perform but due
to the psychological resources of drive and determination, these individuals have
overcome their physical limitations and gone on
to be highly productive individuals. The identification, quantification and
implementation of these psychological attributes in
selection decisions can therefore have a significant impact on a program's success. This
paper will review the factors that have
been associated with athletic success, measures of these factors, and use of these
factors in making selection decisions.
For the most part, athletes can be characterized as being psychologically sound,
effectively functioning people. However,
some studies have shown that athletes have a tendency to be less anxious, more
independent and aggressive, more extroverted,
and more achievement oriented then the population in general (Peterson, Weber &
Trousdale, 1967). A large proportion of the
research that has been conducted in the field of sport psychology has been descriptive
and is therefore well suited for the
identification of the psychological skills necessary for success. Descriptive information
involves comparisons of highly skilled
athletes with lesser-skilled athletes for the purpose of identifying differences. This
information is useful in the hypothesis
generation phase of selection programs. By identifying the presence of certain
characteristics that are uniquely associated with
the success of certain groups, we are able to identify those factors that are most likely
to be correlated with the success of future
athletes. In many ways this descriptive research can be thought of as a job analysis.
That is to say, the knowledge, skills, and
activities that are important to the job of an athlete are identified in this way.
Knowledge, Skills and Abilities Related to Success
Morris (1975) attempted to identify factors that were associated with selection for the
Canadian National Field Hockey
team by combining a psychological approach with biographical data. The instruments used
were the Athletic Motivation
Inventory (AMI) and a biographical questionnaire which was constructed specifically for
this study. The AMI is self
administered and consists of 190 questions written with a sports frame of reference such
that the respondent is asked what
actions they would take or how they would feel about situations that occur in the field
of sports. It purports to measure the
following constructs: drive, self-confidence, aggressiveness, coachability, emotional
control, conscience development, trust,
responsibility, leadership and mental toughness. Validity scales are included that are
used to determine faking or a pattern of
random answering. Results indicated that athletes selected to the team showed a
significantly higher level of aggression, were
more desiring and had a greater capacity for leadership, and were more mentally tough
(not easily upset by losing or criticism of
their play). Analysis of the differences between offensive and defensive players only
showed significant differences on the
dimension of coachability such that offensive players were more coachable then defensive
players. However, this may reflect the
tendency of many coaches to be overly concerned with offensive production and thus to
spend more time working with those
players thereby facilitating their coachability. No statistical analysis was conducted
for the biographical data however some
important differences were noted. Athletes selected to the team were older (Mean age = 32
years, 9 months) than those not
selected (Mean age = 24 years, 1 month). Another interesting finding was that seventeen
of the twenty players selected came
from homes in which both parents were present. Morris states that perhaps opportunities
for children to be involved in activities
outside the home are more likely to occur in situations where home life has a more
settled quality and that the drive to achieve
is fostered by the reinforcement of both parents. Finally, of those selected to the team,
only one was an only child. This suggests
that high achievement in competitive situations is more likely to occur among girls who
have siblings than those who don't.
Morgan's study of biographical data is the only instance in the literature. Although they
were not examined statistically to see if
significant differences existed, the results suggest that it may be an important
component when developing a selection method for
the field of athletics. One should note that this study was conducted with subjects who
participated in a team sport. Because
many athlete's performances suffer as a result of a poor relationship with a coach or
team member, it is important to consider
this factor when making selection decisions. Athletes who possess non-conformist or
non-affiliation tendencies may tend to
exhibit the greatest turmoil with autocratic or inflexible coaches. The Test of
Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) is a test
that was formulated to predict athletic performance based on the constructs of
affiliation and conformity (Nideffer & Sharpe,
1978). The test was normed using a population of elite athletes and can provide valuable
information about an individual's
coachability and role within the team dynamic. However, the psychological factors
identified as being associated with success in
individual sports are somewhat different.
Researchers focusing on the psychological attributes of successful athletes whose sport
is individual in nature have identified
several characteristics not identified by researchers focusing on sport in a team frame
of reference. For example, Mahoney and
Avener (1977) focus on the field of gymnastics. They compared the psychological profiles
of members selected for the 1972
United States Olympic gymnasts. Their results indicated that those selected to the team
had a higher rate of positive self
verbalizations and better methods for coping with competitive stress than those not
selected. These findings were supported
when comparisons were made between qualifiers and non-qualifiers for elite Canadian
wrestling teams (Highlen & Bennett,
1979). Qualifiers had a significantly better ability to block anxiety 1 hour prior to
competition and had fewer negative
self-thoughts 1 hour prior to competition. In addition, qualifiers were significantly
higher on ratings of self-confidence and
believing themselves closer to achieving their athletic potential. Most importantly for
the purposes of selection, the researchers
were able to correctly identify qualifiers based on their psychological profiles 85% of
the time (Highlen & Bennett, 1979).
Other researchers have attempted to use psychological data in conjunction with other
information to predict individuals
selection to athletic teams. Morgan (1980) makes use of the Profile of Mood States (POMS)
and data about an individual's
prior performance and physiological characteristics to achieve a 90% success rate in the
identification of who will make the
team or who will be cut from the team. The POMS is a sixty-five item adjective checklist
which measures six facets of emotion:
tension, depression, fatigue, confusion, anger, and vigor. Morgan has identified what he
calls an Iceberg Profile which is typical
of Olympic caliber distance runners, wrestlers and oars men. The Iceberg Profile is
characterized by low ratings on tension,
depression, fatigue, confusion, and anger and high scores on vigor. The POMS was
developed originally for use in the clinical
field and despite the adaptations made to utilize it in the sports arena, the sense of
measuring psychological disturbance still
prevails. This has a tendency to reduce its effectiveness as a selection instrument.
Much of the research in the field has been anecdotal in nature, gathered primarily
through the analysis of unstructured
interviews. However, the information that has been acquired in this fashion is quite
compelling and useful in identifying the
psychological skills necessary for success in sport. It can be thought of as asking
subject matter experts the qualities that are
most important for successful on the job performance. By analyzing the statements of
present champions (SME's) as to their
psychological abilities, characteristics, opportunities and family role we can
differentiate between successful and unsuccessful
performers. Meyers, Cooke, Cullen, and Liles (1979) reported that successful athletes
were self-confident and had thoughts of
their sport throughout their daily thoughts and dreams. Garfield and Bennett's (1984)
study of anecdotal reports supported
earlier research. They stated that elite athletes do have predictable feelings during
peak performances including: confident and
optimistic, in control, mentally relaxed, physically relaxed, extraordinarily aware, and
in the cocoon (intense sustained
concentration). Bloom (1985) also used an anecdotal approach with both successful
swimmers and wrestlers. Almost all of his
subjects reported that they were determined to excel, were willing to work hard and had
families that were supportive of their
endeavors. Bloom suggested that parents helped to generate enthusiasm, motivation and
created the opportunities for the
children to develop their skills. Some of the other personal factors that have been
identified as being related to the potential to
accomplish include perceptions of locus of control, attributional style, self-efficacy,
goal-setting ability, and achievement
motivation (Singer, 1988). The type of attribution that an athlete makes, the level of
self-efficacy that the individual feels and
other perceptions have been associated with the motivation to persevere and to achieve.
That is to say, the way that an
individual explains their performance influences whether they will quit, continue
half-heartedly, or persist and achieve.
The measurement of psychological variables provides us with important information.
However, as we have seen the data is
of limited value for prediction purposes if other factors such as physiological variables
and prior behavior are not included in the
selection decision. Morgan (1980) was the first to consider prior athletic performance in
the design of his research. As was
mentioned earlier, the inclusion of prior performance and physiological characteristics
led to a 90% success rate in correctly
identifying those individuals selected for a team. Gould, Weiss, and Weinberg (1981) made
use of prior athletic performance in
the design of their research. They created two groups of wrestlers based on their prior
performance in competition:
above-average and below-average. Significant differences were found such that the
above-average group believed they were
closer to achieving their athletic potential, used greater attentional focusing, and had
greater self-confidence then the below
average group. Heyman's 1982 research supports the need for inclusion of prior
performance in selection decisions as well. His
research with wrestler's prior to a Big Ten Wrestling Championship suggests that there is
a very important relationship between
the history of athletes and their later performance. Heyman states that the psychological
patterns and cognitions found in other
research may reflect previous experience rather than cause or facilitate performance in
the athletes; but, performance is a
relatively consistent behavior pattern. In his research, prior performance was as
powerful a predictor of success as
psychological testing. Therefore it is important to consider prior performance in any
selection decision. However, it is important
to quantify prior performance data in order for it to be of any use in selection
programs.
Personnel Selection
Now that we have identified the KSA's necessary for success in the field of athletics ,
it is necessary to design a program
that will make use of this information. The following psychological constructs seem to be
most relevant to all competitors: vigor,
aggression, leadership, ability to cope with stress, coachability, confidence, social
support and positive self concept. In addition,
the ability to interact with others seem to be an important psychological skill within
the team setting. Because prior performance
and physiological data have been found to have such a significant impact on predicting
those individuals that eventually qualify
for a team, it is important to consider these variables as well. In order to develop a
valid selection procedure, it is important to
find measures of these constructs that are both reliable and valid. 
The AMI is one way of assessing the psychological constructs identified above. It is a
particularly useful tool since it is
designed to measure traits within a sports frame of reference. With 190 questions, the
time necessary to complete is one
limitation of this instrument. Another limitation is the lack of research about the
instrument's predictive validity. Additional
research would have to be conducted to assess this. Although Morris (1975) did not
examine the predictive power of the AMI,
she did recognize the importance of gathering additional information to discriminate
between successful and unsuccessful
individuals. Perhaps the inclusion of a biographical data questionnaire would be of
assistance in making selection decisions.
Factors that should be considered include previous experience, presence of siblings, and
family dynamics. Such an instrument
would have to be developed and validated before it would be of any use in making athletic
selection decisions.
The POMS seems to be a good instrument for the identification of some of the constructs
related to success in sports .
Morgan's (1980) ability to identify those athletes selected to a squad with 90%
efficiency indicate that it is a valid and reliable
predictor of elite athletes. The identification of the Iceberg Profile is an important
step in identifying the KSA's necessary for
success in athletics. However, its perception as a clinical instrument may limit its
utility. It is important that only the POMS that
has been adapted for use in the field of athletics be considered for athletic program
selection. In addition, the length of time
necessary to complete the questionnaire is not very long and make it more readily
acceptable for use with applicants to the
athletic program. Finally, it is important to note that Morgan used information from the
POMS as well as prior performance and
physiological data to make predictions. Considering Heyman's 1982 research, inclusion of
prior performance data would
improve the reliability and validity of selection decisions.
For team sports, the inclusion of the TAIS might be useful in assessing how an individual
will interact with others. After all, a
team won't be very successful if the members are unable to get along. Again, the lack of
research concerning the instrument's
predictive validity limits its use for selection decisions. Because the AMI includes
coachability and conscience development
scales, it may be more appropriate for use within the field of athletics. Research needs
to be conducted to assess the ability of
the instrument to differentiate between successful and unsuccessful athletes.
As we have seen, prior athletic performance is a powerful predictor of athletic success.
It is important to develop a means
for quantification of an individual's prior performance in order to make appropriate
selection decisions. Many coaches will have
already identified the physical KSA's they consider to be most important in recruits.
However, mechanical approaches for
selection decisions that make use of quantified data are more effective than judgmental
approaches in identifying those individual
with the necessary KSA's to succeed. Development of a weighted application blank that
measures these abilities would result in
an increase in the reliability of selection decisions. Of course, this would need to be
empirically validated before it could be
used. Reviewing coach's records of prior recruits may provide most of this information
thus facilitating the validation process.
In summary, it appears that a selection program that takes into account psychological
variables, biographical data and prior
performance would be both a valid and reliable predictor of athletic success. Singer
(1988) supports this notion recommending
that psychological tests not be used as the only basis for determining team membership.
This information can be useful in
understanding athletes and their potential strength's and limitations. A battery of
composite tests is recommended that measures
skill level, tactical knowledge, morphology, body composition, physical condition and
attributes, and psychological attributes.
Quantification of these constructs would be necessary in order to make a decision.
Validation of the process would be an
important final step in the development of a selection program for the field of
athletics.
Conclusions
Because the field of athletics has become so competitive, it has become increasingly
important to make appropriate
selection decisions in order to be successful. This paper has demonstrated the importance
of considering psychological
variables, prior performance and physiological data in selection decisions. Although
Morgan's 1980 research had short-term
prediction as its goal, it demonstrated the power of a program that takes into account
all three of these variables. One can only
speculate that in the future, the attention that is given to sports will continue to
grow. The pressure to succeed will leave many
athletic directors and general managers looking for any edge that they can gain over
their competition. One way of doing this will
be to make accurate selection decisions. Therefore, researchers in the field should
attempt to validate a selection process
outlines in this paper which include psychological, physiological and prior performance
data.
Bibliography
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