FREE ESSAY ON NARCISSISM: PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES

NARCISSISM: PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES

On Narcissism: Psychological Theories and Therapeutic Interventions in the Narcissistic
Disorders
Introduction
Understanding the Narcissistic Phenomenon
The so called 'narcissistic personality disorder' is a complex and often misunderstood
disorder. The cardinal feature of the narcissistic personality is the grandiose sense of
self importance, but paradoxically underneath this grandiosity the narcissist suffers
from a chronically fragile low self esteem. The grandiosity of the narcissist, however,
is often so pervasive that we tend to dehumanize him or her. The narcissist conjures in
us images of the mythological character Narcissus who could only love himself, rebuffing
anyone who attempted to touch him. Nevertheless, it is the underlying sense of
inferiority which is the real problem of the narcissist, the grandiosity is just a facade
used to cover the deep feelings of inadequacy.
The Makeup of the Narcissistic Personality
The narcissist's grandiose behavior is designed to reaffirm his or her sense of adequacy.
Since the narcissist is incapable of asserting his or her own sense of adequacy, the
narcissist seeks to be admired by others. However, the narcissist's extremely fragile
sense of self worth does not allow him or her to risk any criticism. Therefore,
meaningful emotional interactions with others are avoided. By simultaneously seeking the
admiration of others and keeping them at a distance the narcissist is usually able to
maintain the illusion of grandiosity no matter how people respond. Thus, when people
praise the narcissist his or her grandiosity will increase, but when criticized the
grandiosity will usually remain unaffected because the narcissist will devalue the
criticizing person.
Akhtar (1989) [as cited in Carson & Butcher, 1992; P. 271] discusses six areas of
pathological functioning which characterize the narcissist. In particular, four of these
narcissistic character traits best illustrate the pattern discussed above.  (1) a
narcissistic individual has a basic sense of inferiority, which underlies a preoccupation
with fantasies of outstanding achievement; (2) a narcissistic individual is unable to
trust and rely on others and thus develops numerous, shallow relationships to extract
tributes from others;(3) a narcissistic individual has a shifting morality-always ready
to shift values to gain favor; and (4) a narcissistic person is unable to remain in love,
showing an impaired capacity for a committed relationship.
The Therapeutic Essence of Treating Narcissism
The narcissist who enters therapy does not think that there is something wrong with him
or her. Typically, the narcissist seeks therapy because he or she is unable to maintain
the grandiosity which protects him or her from the feelings of despair. The narcissist
views his or her situation arising not as a result of a personal maladjustment; rather it
is some factor in the environment which is beyond the narcissist's control which has
caused his or her present situation. Therefore, the narcissist expects the therapist not
to 'cure' him or her from a problem which he or she does not perceive to exist, rather
the narcissist expects the therapist to restore the protective feeling of grandiosity. It
is therefore essential for the therapist to be alert to the narcissists attempts to steer
therapy towards healing the injured grandiose part, rather than exploring the underlying
feelings of inferiority and despair.
Differential Psychological Views of Narcissism
The use of the term narcissism in relation to psychological phenomena was first made by
Ellis in 1898. Ellis described a special state of auto-erotism as Narcissus like, in
which the sexual feelings become absorbed in self admiration (Goldberg, 1980). The term
was later incorporated into Freud's psychoanalytic theory in 1914 in his essay 'On
Narcissism'. Freud conceptualized narcissism as a as a sexual perversion involving a
pathological sexual love to one's own body (Sandler & Person, 1991). Henceforth, several
psychological theories have attempted to explain and treat the narcissistic phenomenon.
Specifically, the most comprehensive psychological theories have been advanced by the
psychodynamic perspective and to a lesser extent the Jungian (analytical) perspective.
Essentially, both theories cite developmental problems in childhood as leading to the
development of the narcissistic disorder. The existential school has also attempted to
deal with the narcissistic problem, although the available literature is much smaller.
Existentialists postulate that society as a whole can be the crucial factor in the
development of narcissism. The final perspective to be discussed is the humanistic
approach which although lacking a specific theory on narcissism, can nevertheless be
applied to the narcissistic disorder. In many ways the humanistic approach to narcissism
echoes the sentiments of the psychodynamic approach.
The Psychodynamic Perspective of Narcissism
The psychodynamic model of narcissism is dominated by two overlapping schools of thought,
the self psychology school and the object relations school. The self psychology school,
represented by Kohut, posits that narcissism is a component of everyone's psyche. We are
all born as narcissists and gradually our infantile narcissism matures into a healthy
adult narcissism. A narcissistic disorder results when this process is somehow disrupted.
By contrast the object relations school, represented by Kernberg, argues that narcissism
does not result from the arrest of the normal maturation of infantile narcissism, rather
a narcissism represents a fixation in one of the developmental periods of childhood.
Specifically, the narcissist is fixated at a developmental stage in which the
differentiation between the self and others is blurred.
Kohut's Theory of Narcissism
Kohut believes that narcissism is a normal developmental milestone, and the healthy
person learns to transform his or her infantile narcissism into adult narcissism. This
transformation takes place through the process which Kohut terms transmuting
internalizations. As the infant is transformed into an adult he or she will invariably
encounter various challenges resulting in some frustration. If this frustration exceeds
the coping abilities of the person only slightly the person experiences optimal
frustration. Optimal frustration leads the person to develop a strong internal structure
(i.e., a strong sense of the self) which is used to compensate for the lack of external
structure (i.e., support from others). In the narcissist the process of transmuting
internalizations is arrested because the person experiences a level of frustration which
exceeds optimal frustration. The narcissist thus remains stuck at the infantile level,
displaying many of the characteristics of the omnipotent and invulnerable child (Kohut,
1977).
Kernberg's Theory of Narcissism
Kernberg's views on narcissism are based on Mahler's theory of the
separation-individuation process in infancy and early childhood. Mahler's model discusses
how the developing child gains a stable self concept by successfully mastering the two
forerunner phases (normal autism and normal symbiosis) and the four subphases
(differentiation, practicing, rapprochement, and consolidation) of
separation-individuation. Kernberg argues that the narcissist is unable to successfully
master the rapprochement subphase and is thus fixated at this level. It is essential,
however, to understand the dynamics of the practicing subphase before proceeding to
tackle the narcissist's fixation at the rapprochement subphase.
The practicing subphase (age 10 to 14 months) marks the developmental stage at which the
child learns to walk. The ability to walk gives the child a whole new perspective of the
world around him. This new ability endows the child with a sense of grandiosity and
omnipotence which closely resemble the narcissist's behavior. However, reality soon
catches up with the child as the child enters the rapprochement subphase (age 14 to 24
months). At this stage the child discovers that he or she is not omnipotent, that there
are limits to what he or she can do. According to Kernberg if the child is severely
frustrated at this stage he or she can adapt by re-fusing or returning to the practicing
subphase, which affords him the security of grandiosity and omnipotence (Kernberg,
1976).
The Preferred Psychodynamic model
The Psychodynamic literature in general tends to lean towards the object relations school
because of the emphasis it places on a comprehensive developmental explanation (i.e. the
use of Mahler's individuation-separation model). Nevertheless, the theory of Kohut has
left a deep impression on Psychodynamic thinking as is evident by the utilization of many
of his concepts in the literature (i.e. Johnson, 1987; Manfield, 1992; and Masterson,
1981). Therefore in the remainder of the Psychodynamic section a similar approach will be
taken, by emphasizing object relations concepts with the utilization of the occasional
Kohutian idea.
The Emergence of the Narcissistic Personality
According to Kernberg and the object relations school the crisis of the rapprochement
subphase is critical to the development of the narcissistic personality. The individual
who is unable to successfully master the challenges of this stage will sustain a
narcissistic injury. In essence the narcissistic injury will occur whenever the
environment (in particular significant others) needs the individual to be something which
he or she is not. The narcissistically injured individual is thus told Don't be who you
are, be who I need you to be. Who you are disappoints me, threatens me angers me,
overstimulates me. Be what I want and I will love you (Johnson, 1987; P. 39).
The narcissistic injury devastates the individual's emerging self. Unable to be what he
or she truly is the narcissistically injured person adapts by splitting his personality
into what Kohut terms the nuclear (real) self and the false self. The real self becomes
fragmented and repressed, whereas the false self takes over the individual. The
narcissist thus learns to reject himself or herself by hiding what has been rejected by
others. Subsequently, the narcissist will attempt to compensate for his or her
'deficiencies' by trying to impress others through his or her grandiosity. The narcissist
essentially decides that There is something wrong with me as I am. Therefore, I must be
special (Johnson, 1987; P. 53).
The Narcissist's View of Others
Just as the individual becomes narcissistic because that is what the environment 'needed'
him or her to be, so does the narcissist view others not as they are, but as what he or
she needs them to be. Others are thus perceived to exist only in relation to the
narcissist's needs. The term object relations thus takes on a special meaning with the
narcissist. We are objects to him, and to the extent that we are narcissistic, others are
objects to us. He doesn't really see and hear and feel who we are and, to the extent that
we are narcissistic, we do not really see and hear and feel the true presence of others.
They, we, are objects... I am not real. You are not real. You are an object to me. I am
an object to you (Johnson, 1987; P. 48). It is apparent than that the narcissist
maintains the infantile illusion of being merged to the object. At a psychological level
he or she experiences difficulties in differentiating the self from others. It is the
extent of this inability to distinguish personal boundaries which determines the severity
of the narcissistic disorder (Johnson, 1987).
Levels of Narcissism
The most extreme form of narcissism involves the perception that no separation exists
between the self and the object. The object is viewed as an extension of the self, in the
sense that the narcissist considers others to be a merged part of him or her. Usually,
the objects which the narcissist chooses to merge with represent that aspect of the
narcissist's personality about which feelings of inferiority are perceived. For instance
if a narcissist feels unattractive he or she will seek to merge with someone who is
perceived by the narcissist to be attractive. At a slightly higher level exists the
narcissist who acknowledges the separateness of the object, however, the narcissist views
the object as similar to himself or herself in the sense that they share a similar
psychological makeup. In effect the narcissist perceives the object as 'just like me'.
The most evolved narcissistic personality perceives the object to be both separate and
psychologically different, but is unable to appreciate the object as a unique and
separate person. The object is thus perceived as useful only to the extent of its ability
to aggrandize the false self (Manfield, 1992).
Types of narcissism
Pending the perceived needs of the environment a narcissist can develop in one of two
directions. The individual whose environment supports his or her grandiosity, and demands
that he or she be more than possible will develop to be an exhibitionistic narcissist.
Such an individual is told 'you are superior to others', but at the same time his or her
personal feelings are ignored. Thus, to restore his or her feelings of adequacy the
growing individual will attempt to coerce the environment into supporting his or her
grandiose claims of superiority and perfection. On the other hand, if the environment
feels threatened by the individual's grandiosity it will attempt to suppress the
individual from expressing this grandiosity. Such an individual learns to keep the
grandiosity hidden from others, and will develop to be a closet narcissist. The closet
narcissist will thus only reveal his or her feelings of grandiosity when he or she is
convinced that such revelations will be safe (Manfield, 1992)
Narcissistic Defense Mechanisms
Narcissistic defenses are present to some degree in all people, but are especially
pervasive in narcissists. These defenses are used to protect the narcissist from
experiencing the feelings of the narcissistic injury. The most pervasive defense
mechanism is the grandiose defense. Its function is to restore the narcissist's inflated
perception of himself or herself. Typically the defense is utilized when someone
punctures the narcissist's grandiosity by saying something which interferes with the
narcissist's inflated view of himself or herself. The narcissist will then experience a
narcissistic injury similar to that experienced in childhood and will respond by
expanding his or her grandiosity, thus restoring his or her wounded self concept.
Devaluation is another common defense which is used in similar situations. When injured
or disappointed the narcissist can respond by devaluing the 'offending' person.
Devaluation thus restores the wounded ego by providing the narcissist with a feeling of
superiority over the offender. There are two other defense mechanisms which the
narcissist uses. The self-sufficiency defense is used to keep the narcissist emotionally
isolated from others. By keeping himself or herself emotionally isolated the narcissist's
grandiosity can continue to exist unchallenged. Finally, the manic defense is utilized
when feelings of worthlessness begin to surface. To avoid experiencing these feelings the
narcissist will attempt to occupy himself or herself with various activities, so that he
or she has no time left to feel the feelings (Manfield, 1992).
Psychodynamic Treatment of the Narcissist
The central theme in the Psychodynamic treatment of the narcissist revolves around the
transference relationship which emerges during treatment. In order for the transference
relationship to develop the therapist must be emphatic in understanding the patient's
narcissistic needs. By echoing the narcissist the therapist remains 'silent' and
'invisible' to the narcissist. In essence the therapist becomes a mirror to the
narcissist to the extent that the narcissist derives narcissistic pleasure from
confronting his or her 'alter ego'. Grunberger's views are particularly helpful in
clarifying this idea. According to him The patient should enjoy complete narcissistic
freedom in the sense that he should always be the only active party. The analyst has no
real existence of his own in relation to the analysand. He doesn't have to be either good
or bad-he doesn't even have to be... Analysis is thus not a dialogue at all; at best it
is a monologue for two voices, one speaking and the other echoing, repeating, clarifying,
interpreting correctly-a faithful and untarnished mirror (Grunberger, 1979; P. 49).
The Mirror Transference
Once the therapeutic relationship is established two transference like phenomena, the
mirror transference and the idealizing transference, collectively known as selfobject
transference emerge. The mirror transference will occur when the therapist provides a
strong sense of validation to the narcissist. Recall that the narcissistically injured
child failed to receive validation for what he or she was. The child thus concluded that
there is something wrong with his or her feelings, resulting in a severe damage to the
child's self-esteem. By reflecting back to the narcissist his or her accomplishments and
grandeur the narcissist's self esteem and internal cohesion are maintained (Manfield,
1992).
There are three types of the mirror transference phenomenon, each corresponding to a
different level of narcissism (as discussed previously). The merger transference will
occur in those narcissists who are unable to distinguish between the object and the self.
Such narcissists will perceive the therapist to be a virtual extension of themselves. The
narcissist will expect the therapist to be perfectly resonant to him or her, as if the
therapist is an actual part of him or her. If the therapist should even slightly vary
from the narcissist's needs or opinions, the narcissist will experience a painful breach
in the cohesive selfobject function provided by the therapist. Such patients will then
likely feel betrayed by the therapist and will respond by withdrawing themselves from the
therapist (Manfield, 1992).
In the second type of mirror transference, the twinship or alter-ego transference, the
narcissist perceives the therapist to be psychologically similar to himself or herself.
Conceptually the narcissist perceives the therapist and himself or herself to be twins,
separate but alike. In the twinship transference for the selfobject cohesion to be
maintained, it is necessary for the narcissist to view the therapist as 'just like me'
(Manfield, 1992).
The third type of mirror transference is again termed the mirror transference. In this
instance the narcissist is only interested in the therapist to the extent that the
therapist can reflect his or her grandiosity. In this transference relationship the
function of the therapist is to bolster the narcissist's insecure self (Manfield, 1992).
The Idealizing Transference
The second selfobject transference, the idealizing transference, involves the borrowing
of strength from the object (the therapist) to maintain an internal sense of cohesion. By
idealizing the therapist to whom the narcissist feels connected, the narcissist by
association also uplifts himself or herself. It is helpful to conceptualize the
'idealizing' narcissist as an infant who draws strength from the omnipotence of the
caregiver. Thus, in the idealizing transference the therapist symbolizes omnipotence and
this in turn makes the narcissist feel secure. The idealization of the object can become
so important to the narcissist that in many cases he or she will choose to fault himself
or herself, rather than blame the therapist (Manfield, 1992).
The idealizing transference is a more mature form of transference than the mirror
transference because idealization requires a certain amount of internal structure (i.e.,
separateness from the therapist). Oftentimes, the narcissist will first develop a mirror
transference, and only when his or her internal structure is sufficiently strong will the
idealizing transference develop (Manfield, 1992).
Utilizing the Transference Relationship in Therapy
The selfobject transference relationships provide a stabilizing effect for the
narcissist. The supportive therapist thus allows the narcissist to heal his or her
current low self esteem and reinstate the damaged grandiosity. However, healing the
current narcissistic injury does not address the underlying initial injury and in
particular the issue of the false self. To address these issues the therapist must
skillfully take advantage of the situations when the narcissist becomes
uncharacteristically emotional; that is when the narcissist feels injured. It thus
becomes crucial that within the context of the transference relationship, the therapist
shift the narcissist's focus towards his or her inner feelings (Manfield, 1992).
The prevailing opinion amongst Psychodynamic theorists is that the best way to address
the narcissist's present experience, is to utilize a hands-off type of approach. This can
be accomplished by letting the narcissist 'take control' of the sessions, processing the
narcissist's injuries as they inevitably occur during the course of treatment. When a
mirror transference develops injuries will occur when the therapist improperly
understands and/or reflects the narcissist's experiences. Similarly, when an idealizing
transference is formed injuries will take the form of some disappointment with the
therapist which then interferes with the narcissist's idealization of the therapist. In
either case, the narcissist is trying to cover up the injury so that the therapist will
not notice it. It remains up to the therapist to recognize the particular defense
mechanisms that the narcissist will use to defend against the pain of the injury, and
work backwards from there to discover the cause of the injury (Manfield, 1992).
Once the cause of the injury is discovered the therapist must carefully explore the issue
with the narcissist, such that the patient does not feel threatened. The following case
provides a good example of the patience and skill that the therapist must possess in
dealing with a narcissistic patient. ...a female patient in her mid-thirties came into a
session feeling elated about having gotten a new job. All she could talk about is how
perfect this job was; there was no hint of introspection or of any dysphoric affect. The
therapist could find no opening and made no intervention the entire session except to
acknowledge the patient's obvious excitement about her new job. Then, as the patient was
leaving, the therapist noticed that she had left her eyeglasses on the table. He said,
you forgot your glasses, to which she responded with an expression of surprise and
embarrassment saying, Oh, how clumsy of me. This response presented the therapist with a
slight seem in the grandiose armor and offered the opportunity for him to intervene. He
commented, You are so excited about the things that are happening to you that this is all
you have been able to think about; in the process you seem to have forgotten a part of
yourself. The patient smiled with a mixture of amusement and recognition. In this example
the patient is defending throughout the session and in a moment of surprise she is
embarrassed and labels herself clumsy, giving the therapist the opportunity to interpret
the defense (her focus on the excitement of the external world) and how it takes her away
from herself (Manfield, 1992; PP. 168-169).
The cure of the narcissist than does not come from the selfobject transference
relationships per se. Rather, the selfobject transference function of the therapist is
curative only to the extent that it provides an external source of support which enables
the narcissist to maintain his or her internal cohesion. For the narcissist to be cured,
it is necessary for him or her to create their own structure (the true self). The healing
process is thus lengthy, and occurs in small increments whenever the structure supplied
by the therapist is inadvertently interrupted. In this context it is useful to recall
Kohut's concept of optimal frustration. If the interruptions to the therapist's
selfobject function are not so severe as to overwhelm the patient's deficient internal
structure, they function as optimal frustrations, and lead to the patient's development
of his own internal structure to make up for the interrupted selfobject function
(Manfield, 1992; P. 167).
The Jungian (Analytical) Perspective of Narcissism
Analytical psychology views narcissism as a disorder of Self-estrangement, which arises
out of inadequate maternal care. However, prior to tackling narcissism it is useful to
grasp the essence of analytical thought.
The Ego and the Self in Analytical Psychology
It is important to understand that the Self in analytical psychology takes on a different
meaning than in psychodynamic thought (Self is thus capitalized in analytical writings to
distinguish it from the psychodynamic concept of the self). In psychodynamic theory the
self is always ego oriented, that is the self is taken to be a content of the ego. By
contrast, in analytical psychology the Self is the totality of the psyche, it is the
archetype of wholeness and the regulating center of personality. Moreover, the Self is
also the image of God in the psyche, and as such it is experienced as a transpersonal
power which transcends the ego. The Self therefore exists before the ego, and the ego
subsequently emerges from the Self (Monte, 1991).
Within the Self we perceive our collective unconscious, which is made up of primordial
images, that have been common to all members of the human race from the beginning of
life. These primordial images are termed archetypes, and play a significant role in the
shaping of the ego. Therefore, When the ego looks into the mirror of the Self, what it
sees is always 'unrealistic' because it sees its archetypal image which can never be fit
into the ego (Schwartz-Salant, 1982; P. 19).
Narcissism as an Expression of Self-Estrangement
In the case of the narcissist, it is the shattering of the archetypal image of the mother
which leads to the narcissistic manifestation. The primordial image of the mother
symbolizes paradise, to the extent that the environment of the child is perfectly
designed to meet his or her needs. No mother, however, can realistically fulfill the
child's archetypal expectations. Nevertheless, so long as the mother reasonably fulfills
the child's needs he or she will develop 'normally'. It is only when the mother fails to
be a 'good enough mother', that the narcissistic condition will occur (Asper, 1993).
When the mother-child relationship is damaged the child's ego does not develop in an
optimal way. Rather than form a secure 'ego-Self axis' bond, the child's ego experiences
estrangement from the Self. This Self-estrangement negatively affects the child's ego,
and thus the narcissist is said to have a 'negativized ego'. The negativized ego than
proceeds to compensate for the Self-estrangement by suppressing the personal needs which
are inherent in the Self; thus the negativized ego of the narcissistically disturbed
person is characterized by strong defense mechanisms and ego rigidity. A person with this
disturbance has distanced himself from the painful emotions of negative experiences and
has become egoistic, egocentric, and narcissistic (Asper, 1993; P. 82).
Analytical Treatment of Narcissism
Since the narcissistic condition is a manifestation of Self-estrangement, the analytical
therapist attempts to heal the rupture in the ego-Self axis bond, which was created by
the lack of good enough mothering. To heal this rupture the therapist must convey to the
narcissist through emphatic means that others do care about him or her; that is the
therapist must repair the archetype of the good mother through a maternally caring
approach (Asper, 1993).
A maternal approach involves being attentive to the narcissist's needs. Just as a mother
can intuitively sense her baby's needs so must the therapist feel and observe what is not
verbally expressed by the narcissist. Such a maternal approach allows the narcissist to
experience more sympathy towards his or her true feelings and thus gradually the need to
withdraw into the narcissistic defense disappears (Asper, 1993).
The Existential Perspective of Narcissism
Existentialists perceive narcissism to be a byproduct of an alienating society. It is
difficult for the individual to truly be himself or herself because society offers many
rewards for the individual who conforms to its rules. Such an individual becomes
alienated because he or she feels that society's rituals and demands grant him or her
little significance and options in the control of his or her own destiny. To compensate
such an individual takes pleasure in his or her own uniqueness (grandiosity), he or she
enjoys what others cannot see and control. Thus, the alienated person sees himself as a
puppet cued by social circumstances which exact ritualized performances from him. His
irritation about the inevitability of this is counterbalanced by one major consolation.
This consists of his narcissistic affection for his own machinery-that is, his own
processes and parts (Johnson, 1977; P. 141).
Existential Treatment of Narcissism
The existential treatment of the narcissist is based on the existential tenant that all
existing persons have the need and possibility of going out from their centeredness to
participate in other beings (Monte, 1991; P. 492). The severely alienated narcissistic
individual, however, does not believe in the validity of experience outside of the self.
Unlike others, the narcissist does not believe that a constructive relationship with
others is possible. Existentialists therefore believe that the therapist, through
emphatic understanding, must create a strong bond with the narcissist, so that he or she
can see that others have feelings too (Johnson, 1977).
The Humanistic (Client-Centered) Perspective of Narcissism
Thus far, no specific formulations have been advanced by humanistic theorists about the
etiology of the narcissistic condition. Nevertheless, by utilizing general humanistic
principles it is possible to explain narcissism. Essentially, much like the psychodynamic
explanation, humanistic psychology would argue that narcissism results when individuals
are not 'allowed' to truly be who they are.
According to humanistic theory, humans have an innate need for self actualization. We
want to be the best person that we could possibly be. This is accomplished by
internalizing the behaviors that fit with the individual's personal self concept (that
which the individual finds to be appealing). However the self is also subject to pressure
from significant others. Significant others place upon the individual, conditions of
worth, upon which their love and approval is dependent. These conditions may or may not
be congruent with the individual's personal self. If they contrast sharply with the
personal self, and the individual does not want to risk loosing the approval or love of
significant others, then that individual will behave in ways maladaptive to his or her
self actualization needs.
Although humanistic theory does not elaborate on the specificity of these maladaptive
behaviors, it is possible to speculate that narcissism is one possible outcome.
Specifically, the narcissistic individual chooses to mask his or her damaged personal
self by the display of a perfect grandiose front to the world.
Humanistic Treatment of Narcissism
The humanistic treatment of the narcissist, is in general no different from the
humanistic treatment of any other client. The humanistic therapist wants the narcissist
to rediscover his or her individuality, which was suppressed by the conditions of worth
imposed by significant others. In order to accomplish this, the proper environment must
be set in therapy, free of any conditions of worth. The narcissist must feel that
whatever he or she does is all right with the therapist. The therapist therefore gives
the narcissist unconditional positive regard. There is no judgment of the narcissist,
instead the therapist honestly and caringly tries to see things through the eyes of the
narcissist. When the narcissist comes to accept his or her true needs he or she will be
congruent with the personal self and the narcissistic front will no longer be needed.
Comparative Analysis
Each of the psychological approaches discussed above contains both strengths and
weaknesses, in attempting to solve the narcissistic puzzle. Nevertheless, the
psychodynamic model possesses a big advantage over the other approaches in its ability to
offer both a comprehensive theory of etiology and a detailed description of treatment.
With respect to etiology the other approaches suffer from: a lack of concrete
observational validity (the analytical approach), lack of clarity in capturing the
essence of narcissism (the existential approach), and lack of continuity in predicting
narcissism (the humanistic approach).
The analytical model of narcissism depends on too many hypothetical concepts, such as the
collective unconscious, which are not supported by any concrete evidence. True the
psychodynamic model introduces some hypothetical concepts of its own but these concepts
are backed by Mahler's comprehensive developmental theory. The existential model seems to
confuse narcissism with the schizoid condition. By emphasizing the narcissist's tendency
to withdraw into the pleasures of the self, existentialists overlook the immense
suffering which so characterizes the narcissist. The humanistic model shares much in
common with the psychodynamic model about the etiology of narcissism. However, unlike the
psychodynamic model it is rather vague about why this etiology leads to the emergence of
narcissism.
With respect to treatment the major advantage of the psychodynamic approach is that it
goes beyond the exclusive use of emphatic means to treat the narcissist. By limiting
treatment to emphatic understanding the other approaches fail to address the underlying
issues inherent in narcissism. Therefore, the other approaches might shore up the
narcissist's damaged self esteem in the short run, but it is doubtful if they will be
able to transform the narcissist.
Possibly the only weakness of the psychodynamic approach lies in the length that it takes
to treat narcissism. Recall that a successful psychodynamic treatment requires the
therapist to be very careful about maintaining the narcissist's delicate self perception.
Only gradually can the psychodynamic therapist direct the narcissist's attention towards
the real underlying emotional feelings.
Conclusion
No matter which approach is utilized in the explanation and treatment of narcissism it is
important to recognize that the narcissistic individual is a complex and multifaceted
human being. Deep inside narcissistic individuals experience tremendous pain and
suffering, for which they attempt to compensate for by the projection of the grandiose
front. These people are not character disordered. They are people tortured by
narcissistic injury and crippled by developmental arrests in functioning which rob them
of the richness of life they deserve. They are good people, who are hurting. They are
living and suffering the narcissistic style.
Bibliography
References
Asper, Kathrin. (1993). The abandoned child within. New York: Fromm International
Publishing Corporation.
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