FREE ESSAY ON KABUKI : A JAPANESE FORM

KABUKI : A JAPANESE FORM

Thesis Marijuana is a substance that has become very much a part of American culture.
Nearly 65 million Americans have either used it occasionally or regularly. The use of
marijuana hit mainstream America about thirty years ago and it has been accepted by a
large segment of society ever since (Rosenthal 16). The debate on whether this substance
should be legalized or not remains a very hot topic today. Despite government efforts to
isolate and eliminate its use, it is clear that the use of marijuana is still very
popular. There is an obvious problem concerning marijuana today. Governments on all three
levels: local, state, and federal are trying desperately to find an appropriate policy
involving marijuana. National polls show that more than 70% of the American people, from
both ends of the political spectrum, support controlled access to marijuana for medicinal
purposes. Despite fierce opposition from the federal government, voters in California and
Arizona passed ballot initiatives in the fall of 1996 favoring the legalization of
medicinal marijuana (Randall 33). If support for marijuana at least as a medicinal remedy
is so high, then why have only a few states taken steps to change their policy? There are
several reasons why marijuana remains illegal. Mainly, it is a political issue kicked
around by certain special interest groups. Some of
these groups perceive marijuana as a threat to the home, tearing families apart and
causing them to abandon traditional values. However these groups usually are not
legitimate areas of legislation. The more powerful groups have other, more practical
reasons for keeping marijuana illegal. Among the most powerful of these groups are the
combined law enforcement-judiciary-penal systems. This group sees the elimination of
marijuana laws as a threat to their jobs. Add to this group defense lawyers, who stand to
make millions of dollars defending marijuana offenders. Consciously or not, they support
anti-marijuana laws (Rosenthal 2). Another interest group includes the scientists
whose marijuana research is funded by the government. If marijuana were legalized, they
would lose millions of dollars in research grants intended to prove the detrimental
effects of the substance. Two other unrelated and very influential groups are the liquor
lobby and pharmaceutical companies. Their spending is usually very secretive and not
publicized very much. Legalization of a competing product that can be produced with
relative ease by anyone with access to a plot of land would cut deeply into their
profits. And the drug companies want control, rather than just a ban, for they know the
medicinal benefits of marijuana (Rosenthal 9). Therefore the major reason marijuana still
remains illegal is that special interest groups are blocking legislation by extensive
lobbying. Clearly it is seen that many people support its use, at least for medical
reasons. It is obvious that the current policy for marijuana is not working very
efficiently. The government spends billions of dollars every year to stop its use. This
leads to the opening of a very extensive black market for marijuana, because the drug is
still in high demand. With the black market comes all the crime and violent acts that
create a new problem of overcrowding prison populations. In effect, the government does
not really solve the marijuana problem; instead it just creates a new one in its place.
Present Policy The present policy on marijuana is that it is classified as a Schedule I
drug in the Controlled Substances Act. This law established criteria for determining
which substances should be controlled, mechanisms for reducing the availability of
controlled drugs, and a structure of penalties for illegal distribution and possession of
controlled drugs (Roffman 4). The criteria for Schedule I substances are: The drug or
other substance has a high potential for abuse, the drug or other substance is not
currently accepted for use in medical treatment in the United States, and the drug or
other substance has not been proven safe for use under medical supervision. Along with
marijuana, hashish, and THC, drugs listed in Schedule I are heroin, LSD, mescaline,
peyote, and many other hallucinogens. This makes it illegal for anyone to buy, sell,
grow, or possess any amount of marijuana anywhere in the United States. State laws vary
in terms of penalties issued. Under New York State Law, a first possession of up to
twenty-five grams of
marijuana in private results in a $100 fine. If there is a second possession of the same
amount, the
fine is increased to $200. The cultivation of marijuana results in a $1000 fine and up
to
one-year imprisonment. The same applies to the sale of marijuana. There are harsher
penalties
issued if the offender is convicted of possession, cultivation, or sale of marijuana in
public.
Possession of marijuana in public results in a $500 fine and up to three months
imprisonment.
Cultivation results in up to one-year imprisonment and a $1000 fine. Sale of marijuana in
public can
result in a four-year imprisonment. Penalties become harsher depending upon the amount
of
marijuana in possession, cultivation, or sale. The apex is reached at a fifteen-year
imprisonment
with the possession, cultivation, or sale of over ten pounds of marijuana or more
(Roffman 43).
Source and Ingredients Marijuana is defined as the mixture of leaves, stems, and
flowering tops of the
hemp plant, in the genus Cannabis. There are three species: Cannabis sativa, Cannabis
indica, and
Cannabis ruderalis. The hemp plant now grows wild throughout most of the world and can
be
cultivated in any area with a hot season. Some 421 chemicals in 18 different chemical
classes
have been detected in the hemp plant. It synthesizes at least 61 distinct substances
called
cannabinoids that are not found in any other genus of plants (Randall 47). The most
significant of
these substances is 1-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, an oily, water-insoluble liquid. In
popular writing it is often
called simply THC. The THC content of marijuana generally varies from 0.5% to 6%.
Patterns of Use
There are many different cannabis preparations that are widely used to obtain effects.
Cannabis
may be either smoked or taken by mouth. However the same dose of THC is about three
times as effective when smoked as when ingested (Randall 48). In the United States
marijuana is
usually smoked in the form of a hand-rolled cigarette ("joint" or "reefer"), but it is
also smoked
in a variety of pipes. Until the 1960's the pattern in the United States was one of
intermittent use of
marijuana on social occasions by a relatively small number of young adults, together with
regular use
by some jazz musicians, urban minority groups, and Mexican Americans in the Southwest
(Roffman 51). In the following years, however, marijuana use increased sharply. By 1979,
68% of
young adults 18 to 25 had tried marijuana at least once, 35% had used it in the month
just before the
survey, and about 2/3 of current users reported using it five or more times per month.
About 9%
of users reported use on a daily basis. The use of marijuana also increased sharply in
other countries
throughout the world. Psychological and Physiological Effects THC produces its actions
primarily on the nervous system and on the heart and blood vessels. The effects depend on
the
dose, the route of administration, and on the degree of tolerance that has developed.
Because
individuals vary in the way they inhale the smoke and because marijuana varies in THC
content, the
amount of active THC that reaches the bloodstream during smoking varies greatly (Potter
110). Generally, smoking a marijuana cigarette with a 2% THC content (equivalent to about
20
mg taken orally) produces changes in mood, mental abilities, coordination, blood
pressure, and
pulse. The most common result is the state commonly referred to as a "high", including
an
increased sense of well-being (euphoria), relaxation, and sleepiness. Short-term memory
is
impaired, and the capacity to carry out goal-directed problems requiring multiple and
mental steps is reduced. Users may experience feelings of strangeness and unreality
(Potter 112).
Sights and sounds may take on new qualities. The sense of time is often altered to that
minutes may
seem like hours. Balance and stability are impaired even with low doses, as are complex
behaviors
(perception, information processing) involved in driving (Potter 113). Low doses also
produce
increases in heart rate and systolic blood pressure, and a reddening of the eyes due to
dilation of
conjunctival vessels. Higher doses can produce hallucinations, delusions, and
unrealistic
suspiciousness and feeling of persecution. Anxiety increases, and a state of panic may
occur.
Thinking becomes confused and disorganized. Because the onset of the drug effect is rapid
when
marijuana is smoked, most users learn to avoid overdose by taking only as many
inhalations as are
required to produce the desired "high" (Potter 113). Smoking high doses of marijuana or
hashish
over long periods of time produces severe bronchitis, and the "tar" produced when
marijuana
is smoked is more potent than the "tar" from tobacco in causing cancer in animals.
Medical
Uses The pharmacological effects of the hemp plant have been known since ancient times.
A
Chinese pharmacopoeia compiled nearly 2,000 years ago recommended it for treating a
number of
disorders, and it was used in India before the 10th century AD (Cohen 86). There are no
currently
approved uses for marijuana in the United States, except for two states California and
Arizona,
which have legalized marijuana for medicinal purposes. Clinical research has shown that
THC is
effective in reducing the nausea that cancer patients experience when they are treated
with
chemotherapy. Marijuana is also believed to stimulate appetite. In asthma patients,
several
studies have shown that THC acts as a bronchodilator and reserves bronchial constriction
(Rosenthal 68). In treating epilepsy, marijuana is used to prevent both grande mal and
other
epileptic seizures in some patients. Marijuana also limits the muscle pain and spasticity
caused by
multiple sclerosis and it relieves tremor and unsteady gait. Lastly, marijuana has been
clinically
shown to be effective in relieving muscle spasm and spasticity (Rosenthal 69). History
of
Marijuana Laws The hemp plant was once a widely cultivated plant in the New World by
settlers. It has been known for centuries that the fiber from the hemp plant is very
useful in making
ropes. Therefore the cultivation of the hemp plant was encouraged and much needed. The
first law
concerning the hemp plant was passed in 1619 by the Virginia Assembly, urging farmers to
grow the
crop for its fiber. There was virtually no significant legislation passed concerning the
hemp plant until
the 1900's. It was at this time when American attitudes towards Mexicans became hostile.
Marijuana obtained a foul reputation when Mexican peasants crossed the border into
Texas.
It was widely used by Mexican peasants as an intoxicant. The Texas police claimed that
marijuana caused these Mexican settlers to commit violent crimes. Therefore in 1914, the
first
ban on possession of marijuana was passed in El Paso, Texas (Potter 97). Many other
states
followed Texas, and in 1937, Congress passed the Marijuana Tax Act. This law made the
possession of marijuana illegal anywhere in the United States. During the McCarthy era,
the
Boggs Acts were passed to define mandatory minimums for the possession of marijuana.
Congress moved to an even stronger position in 1956 by lengthening these mandatory
minimum
sentences. Anti-marijuana feelings continued to grow, and state laws often imposed
stricter
penalties than the federal penalties (Potter 98). In the 1960's, however, a strange
phenomenon
began to occur. For the first time in history, marijuana use began to rise amongst the
white
middle class. Many mandatory sentences were called to be repealed. This was seen in the
Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. Most of the states followed
the federal government, and the possession of marijuana was decriminalized. However in
the
1980's the government once again changed its mind, with the passage of the Anti-Abuse Act
of
1986, which once again imposed mandatory minimum sentences for a wide range of drug
offenses (Potter 101). The last major piece of legislation passed by the federal
government (not
state governments) was in 1996, which stated that any American convicted of a marijuana
felony may
no longer receive federal welfare or food stamps (Potter 101). How a Bill Becomes a Law
The
ultimate goal for a special interest group would be to have a law passed by the federal
government
either legalizing marijuana, or keeping marijuana illegal. A bill or proposal for a law
can originate in
either the Senate or the House of Representatives of the United States Congress. Both
houses must
pass the law in its exact form, and then the president must sign it. If a group wants
marijuana
to be legalized on the federal level, it must contact a specific committee within the
House or Senate.
The proposal would go to a highly specialized sub-committee within the committee itself
for
hearings, revisions, and approval. Next the bill would again go back to the original
committee for
any further revisions. If the whole committee approves the bill, then it goes before the
Rules
committee. This is the committee that is responsible for setting actions for a debate.
After
the debate, if the bill is approved, then it is submitted to the Senate. In the Senate,
similar
proceedings would occur and leadership would schedule action and the bill would be
debated. If
the Senate approves it, any differences are worked out by conference with the House. The
final version of the bill would finally go back to both the Senate and the House for
approval. Then
it will go to the President who may either opt to sign the bill or veto it. If the bill
is signed, it
becomes a law, and it is enforced throughout the nation. If the President vetoes the
bill, Congress
may override the veto with a two-thirds majority in each house. This would then turn the
bill into a
law. Advocates for Legalization (Interview with Charles Garner) A major advocate for the
legalization of marijuana is the Drug Policy Foundation (DPF). It is an independent,
non-profit
organization with over 23,000 supporters that publicizes alternatives to current drug
strategies.
The current annual budget for DPF is just over $3 million. DPF believes that the current
policy on
drugs is not working: It erodes individual rights, is extremely expensive, creates a new
class of
criminals, subsidizes a violent black market, does not control drug use trends, and
ignores the health
aspect of drug use. The major objectives of DPF are: ? Harm reduction: policies that help
drug users
to help themselves, such as needle exchange programs, which can lower the risk of
spreading
deadly diseases like HIV/AIDS. ? Decriminalization: selectively enforcing the laws on
the books to focus on major drug offenders, as in Holland. ? Medicalization: allowing
doctors to
prescribe otherwise illegal drugs to patients under certain conditions, as is the case
now in Arizona
and California, and also allowing doctors to maintain an addict as in Great Britain and
Switzerland. ? Legalization: making drugs available 
to adults in a regulated market, similar to U.S. alcohol laws. DPF tries to propose its
solutions by
means of: ? Public education: promoting alternatives to the drug war in its publications
and
by providing information to the public, the media, and government officials. ?
Conferences: DPF
hosts an annual conference for the public, policy-makers, public health workers, and
medical
and legal professionals. This ranges from media seminars to special interest group
training sessions.
? Public Policy: Through its Public Policy Office, DPF seeks to change America's drug
laws by
monitoring and analyzing Congressional legislation, informing the public and DPF
membership about
legislation through Action Alerts and the monthly newsletter on legislation. ? Grants: to
fund a
variety of programs and projects in the field of drug policy. Examples include needle
exchange
programs, pioneering drug treatment services, as well as some research and advocacy
projects.
Advocates Against Legalization (Interview with Jeffery Kluger) Drug Watch International
(DWI) is
a volunteer, non-profit information network and advocacy organization, which promotes
the
creation of healthy drug-free cultures in the world, and it opposes the legalization of
drugs. It has
about 13,000 members in 15 countries worldwide with a budget of $1.3 million annually.
The
organization upholds a comprehensive approach to drug issues involving prevention,
education,
intervention/treatment, and law enforcement/interdiction. In its mission statement,
DWI writes: The illegal or harmful use of psychoactive or addictive drugs is a major
threat
to all world communities and future generations. The mission of DWI is to provide
accurate
information on both illicit and harmful psychoactive substances, promoting sound drug
policies based
on scientific research, and opposing efforts to legalize or decriminalize drugs. The
major methods
used by DWI are: ? Support clear messages and standards of no illegal use of alcohol,
tobacco and
other drugs, and no abuse of legal drugs or substances for adults or youth. ? Support
comprehensive and coordinated approaches that include prevention, education, law
enforcement,
and treatment in addressing issues regarding alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. ?
Support
strong laws and meaningful legal penalties that hold users and dealers accountable for
their actions. ?
Support international treaties and agreements, including international sanctions and
penalties
against drug trafficking, and oppose attempts to weaken international drug policies and
laws. ?
Support adherence to scientific research standards and ethics that are prescribed by the
world
scientific community and professional associations in conducting studies and review on
alcohol,
tobacco and other drugs. ? Support efforts to prevent availability and use of drugs, and
oppose
policies and programs that accept drug use basederroneously on reduction or minimization
of harm.
Bibliography 
Abel, I. L. Marihuana : The First Twelve Thousand Years. New York : McGraw Hill, 1982. 
Garner, Charles. Personal Interview. May 21, 1998. 
Kluger, Jeffery. Personal Interview. May 16, 1998. 
Nahas, Gabriel G. Marihuana, Biological Effects. Illionois :Univeristy of Illinois Press,
1986. Potter, Beverly.
The Healing Magic of Cannabis. California : Ronin
Publishings, Inc., 1998. Randall, Robert C. The
Patients Fight for Medicinal Pot. New York :
Thunders Mouth Press, 1998. Roffman, Roger A.
Marijuana as Medicine. Washington : Madrona
Publishers, Inc., 1982. Rosenthal, Ed. Why
Marijuana Should Be Legal. New York :
Thunder's Mouth Press, 1996