FREE ESSAY ON HISTORY OF THE GOVERNMENT IN UNITED STATES

HISTORY OF THE GOVERNMENT IN UNITED STATES

In this essay I will give a short history of the government in United States of America
(U.S.).
Then I will describe each of the three branches of government in the U.S. and the
relationship between
them.
In principle, the U.S. is a democratic republic, they govern themselves by choosing their
leaders
by secret ballot, and these leaders in turn make the rules. Americans started governing
themselves as
a nation on July 4th, 1776, when the Declaration of Independence was signed in
Philadelphia by
representatives of the thirteen British colonies in North America. These states joined
together formally
in 1781 under a first constitution, the Articles of Confederation. That loose union of
the states was
replaced by the Constitution of the U.S. in 1789. This document (amended 26 times) is
still the political
foundation of the U.S. Being based on a written constitution, the U.S. government is
committed in
principle to the rule of law. To guarantee the rights of free speech, a free press,
freedom of religion etc.
the first ten amendments, called the Bill of Rights were adopted in 1791. 
There are three levels of government in the U.S. Local government (city/county), state
government, and
federal government. Here I will pay most attention to the federal government. Many of the
concepts of
the U.S. government can be traced to progressive thinkers of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries,
e.g. Locke, Spinoza, Blackstone, and Montesquiueu. Out of some of their thoughts the
U.S.
government system with the three branches were made: A legislative branch (Congress), an
Executive
branch (President), and a judicial branch (Supreme Court). The Constitution is most of
all a document
of checks and balances: among the three branches of the federal government; and between
the levels of
government, nation and state. 
The legislative branch (Congress) that has the power to make laws valid for the whole
country. Powers
like the regulation of taxes, regulation of commerce between the states and with foreign
countries, the
power to declare war, and the power to impeach the President are some of the other
matters the
legislative branch have to deal with. Congress has two chambers (or houses): the Senate
and the
House of Representatives (the house). The Senate consists of one hundred senators: Two
senators
from each of the fifty states. The senators serve for six-year terms. One third are
elected every two
years. The Senate's area of responsibility consists of to approve major presidential
appointments, and
approve major foreign policy steps. The House of Representatives has their 435 members
(called
congress-men/women/people/persons) chosen from districts (the U.S. is divided into 435
districts
containing some five hundred thousand inhabitants). The districts are reapportioned every
ten years.
The representatives serve in two-year terms, and all of them are elected every two years.
All tax
legislation must start in the House.
Executive power is vested in the office of the President of the U.S. The President has
the dual
role of being the chief of state and the head of government. The President is also
commander in chief of
the armed forces; he issues executive orders, and appoints Supreme Court justices (with
senate
approval). The president is also called the chief legislator because he/she indirectly
proposes many
bills, considers all bills from Congress and signs them into law or vetoes them. The
President is elected
by the whole country for four years. He/she is assisted by the Cabinet and its
departments, the White
House staff, and some independent administrative agencies.
The Supreme Court: The Judicial power of the U.S. shall be vested in one supreme court,
and
in such inferior courts as the Congress from time to time may ordain an establish.(The
Constitution
states). All nine federal judges are appointed by the President and serve during good
behaviour,
usually meaning for life. The judges cannot be removed from office except for criminal
behaviour or
malfeasance. This makes them less vulnerable to political pressure than they would be if
they had to
depend upon politicians or the voters for new mandates. The main feature of the
independent role for
the courts lies in their power to interpret the Constitution. They review the
constitutionality of laws and
executive orders. The number of justices is decided by Congress, and they can be
impeached by
congress. There are also Inferior Courts: One hundred District Courts and thirteen Courts
of Appeals,
all of them are created by Congress, with judges appointed by the President (with Senate
approval). All
federal courts hear cases involving federal law, involving state laws whose
constitutionally is changed,
involving the U.S., involving two separate states, and involving citizens of different
states. 
Having presented the three branches of U.S. government in broad strokes, I will now turn
in to how the
separation of powers is designed to work. The system of government is commonly referred
to as the
system of checks and balances. It is designed to work so as to avoid placing too much
power in too
few hands.
The most powerful tool Congress has (most important checks on the power of the President)
is the
power to appropriate money (set aside money for some specific purpose). After both houses
of
Congress have approved the budget, it is sent over to the President. He/she has to sign
the bill into law.
Another major check on the power of the President is the Senate's power of advice and
consent. The
President is obliged to ask for the advice and consent of the Senate on all major
appointments (e.g.
members of the president's Cabinet, new justices of the Supreme Court, other federal
judges, and
members of administrative or regulatory agencies) and major foreign policy decisions
he/she makes
(e.g. when it concerns treaties). To declare war, the President must turn to both houses
of Congress for
their approval. 
The president's major countervailing power in the legislative process is the power of the
veto. The
President must sign any proposed legislation before it becomes law; his failure or
refusal to do so can
thus stop any bill. If the President returns a bill to Congress with a veto on it, the
legislature has the
power to override the President's veto by re-passing the legislation by a two-thirds
majority in both
houses. Then the bill becomes law without the President's signature. (If the President
does not wish to
be associated with a bill but does not feel that it is worthwhile to prevent it from
becoming law, he can
demonstrate this by using a so-called pocket veto: he/she simply lets it lie on his/her
desk for ten days
without signing it or vetoing it, in which case it becomes law without the President's
signature.)
The Congress has the power to impeach the President. (A complex matter that involves the
House of Representatives and its Judicial Committee or a special ad hoc committee, the
Senate, the
Chief Justice of the U.S. (the Supreme Court))
Turning to the relationship between Congress and the Supreme Court, we find that
Congress
has the power to determine the construction of the Court (and its inferior courts). As
mentioned before,
the Congress has some say in whom will sit on the Supreme Court bench, in that
nominations made by
the President must be approved by the Senate.
I have already touched the checks between the Supreme Court and the President. Just as
the
President may be impeached by the Congress, so may justices of the Supreme Court (indeed,
all civil
officials, except members of Congress) be removed from office by impeachment.
The single countervailing arrow of power aimed at Congress by the Supreme Court is the
comprehensive power of judicial review (As mentioned earlier on in the paragraph about
the Supreme
Court). This review of laws by the courts is not an automatic part of the legislative
process, but the
specific laws have to be brought before the courts for a decision about their
constitutionality. If
Congress finds that the Supreme Court has interpreted the Constitution in a way which
disagrees with
its own fundamental views (or for any other reason), then Congress can initiate the
process of amending
the Constitution. A majority of two thirds of both houses of Congress must pass the
amendment. As
soon as three quarters of the states (thirty-eight of them) have ratified the proposed
amendment it
becomes a part of the Constitution.
In all these ways the Constitution checks the unrestricted exercise of power by each
branch and balances of the powers of the branches against each other.
Sources:
T. Sirevag, American patterns, Ad Notam Gyldendal, Oslo
D. May and J. Oakland, American civilization, Routledge, London/New York
B. O'Callaghan, An Illustrated History of the USA, Longman, Essex
G. T. Kurian, A Historical Guide to the U.S. Government, Oxford University Press, New
York/Oxford
L. Berlowitz, D. Donoghue, and L. Menand, America in theory, Oxford University Press,
New
York/Oxford
D. J. Boorstin, The Americans, The Democratic Experience, Random House, New York
D. S. MacQueen, American Social Studies, Studentlitteratur, Lund
Encyclop?dia Britannica (http:/www.britannica.com) 
Bibliography
see above